what percent of teenage runaways are likely to become involved in sex work?

J Child Adolesc Trauma. 2019 Jun; 12(2): 221–231.

An Ecological Analysis of Risk Factors for Runaway Behavior among Individuals Exposed to Commercial Sexual Exploitation

Lisa Fedina

ⁱSchool of Social Piece of work, University of Michigan, 1080 S. University Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 The states

Tasha Perdue

²School of Social Piece of work, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA Usa

Charlotte Lyn Bright

³School of Social Work, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, Md United states of america

Celia Williamson

⁴Department of Criminal Justice, Social Work, and Legal Specialties, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH USA

Abstract

Running away from habitation is a known run a risk gene for commercial sexual exploitation among youth; withal, research has not fully investigated the process past which multiple factors at private, familial, and extra-familial levels increase youths' risk for runaway behavior. This study applies an ecological risk gene framework to assess adventure for runaway behavior amidst individuals exposed to commercial sexual exploitation and examines mediating relationships betwixt salient hazard factors (i.e. substance abuse, insufficient basic needs, having a much older boyfriend/girlfriend) and runaway behavior. A cross-exclusive, retrospective survey was administered to individuals involved in the commercial sex industry using Respondent Driven Sampling methods (Northward = 273). Bivariate results suggested associations betwixt runaway beliefs and childhood emotional and physical abuse, having friends who sold sex, having a much older boyfriend/girlfriend, dropping out of schoolhouse, being worried nigh where to eat/slumber, homelessness, and frequent alcohol and drug use prior to inbound the commercial sex manufacture. Hierarchical logistic regression revealed that individuals with runaway behavior histories were more likely to take frequently used alcohol and/or drugs and to have insufficient basic needs compared to those did not run away; however, these factors were no longer meaning subsequently accounting for having a much older fellow/girlfriend. Having an older boyfriend/girlfriend fully mediated the relationship betwixt frequent alcohol and/or drug use and runaway behavior. Findings support the need for community and school-based prevention programs that target these risk factors with a specific focus on salubrious dating relationships, which may reduce run a risk for runaway behavior and subsequent commercial sexual exploitation.

Keywords: Runaway youth, High risk youth, Domestic minor sex trafficking, Commercial sexual exploitation, Risk factors

Introduction

Between ane.6 and 2 one thousand thousand youth run away from home each year in the United States (Hammer et al. 2002; National Survey on Drug Use and Wellness 2004). Research on risk factors for runaway behavior include family instability (e.m., conflict, corruption), youth problem behaviors (eastward.g., substance abuse), and other demographic factors linked to economic (e.yard., poverty) and social stressors (e.g., gender identity, sexual orientation) (Greene et al. 1995; Molnar et al. 1998; Tyler et al. 2011; Westat 1997). Youth engaging in runaway behaviors are at greater risk for farther exposure to a diverseness of harms while on the street or away from home, including homelessness, substance abuse, violence, and exploitation (Tyler et al. 2004; Whitbeck et al. 2007).).

Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Runaway Behavior

Commercial sexual exploitation (CSE) of youth is defined as a range of activities that involve sexual abuse or exploitation for the financial gain of whatsoever person or in exchange for something of value (including monetary and not-monetary benefits) (Role Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention n.d.). Commercial sexual exploitation can include sex activity trafficking, which is defined as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of persons through forcefulness, fraud, coercion, or abuse for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation (Trafficking Victims Protection Human action [TVPA] of 2000 2010). Federal law recognizes all persons under the age of 18 who are engaged in commercial sexual practice acts as victims of sex trafficking, regardless of whether force, fraud, or coercion is present. Commercial sexual exploitation of youth can include commercial sex acts in circumstances of forcefulness, fraud, and/or compulsion by a 3rd party (e.one thousand., pimp-controlled prostitution) and when force, fraud, and coercion are not nowadays, where youth may be engaging in "survival sexual practice," defined as selling or exchanging sex for food, habiliment, shelter, money, drugs, or other items of value in order to survive (Ennett et al. 1999).

Disproportionately high rates of CSE accept been documented among delinquent youth, and runaway behavior has been identified as a precursor to CSE (Edwards et al. 2006; Fedina et al. 2016; Greene et al. 1995). Prior research suggests that individuals who entered the commercial sexual practice industry nether the age of 18 were over five times more probable to accept run away prior to inbound the commercial sex industry compared to individuals who entered the commercial sex activity industry as adults, fifty-fifty afterwards adjusting for demographics and other known adventure factors for CSE (Fedina et al. 2016). Although youth may enter the commercial sex activity manufacture through varying pathways, delinquent behavior remains a clear risk factor for CSE (both for engaging in survival sexual practice and forced or coerced commercial sex acts), which has been linked to multiple poor concrete and mental wellness outcomes among youth including HIV and other sexually transmitted infections, unintended pregnancy, depression, and suicidal behaviors (Haley et al. 2004; Klain 1999).

Application of an Ecological Chance Factor Framework

A considerable amount of research on adolescents and youth has integrated a take a chance cistron arroyo to Bronfenbrenner'southward ecological framework (Bronfenbrenner 1979; 1989) to place multiple risk factors that increase youths' vulnerability and susceptibly for negative developmental outcomes such as alcohol and substance abuse, early sexual action, and other health risk behaviors (Browning et al. 2015; Nargiso et al. 2015; Newcomb et al. 1986; Small and Luster 1994). Although the presence of one or more than risk factors do non ensure a negative consequence, it does increase the probability of the upshot to occur, especially if multiple risk factors are nowadays (Modest and Luster 1994). The benefit to utilizing an integrated ecological hazard factor framework is indeed the multi-level approach, which provides greater understanding into how risk factors operate and interact with 1 another at various levels and subsequently shape a youth'due south social ecology. An integrated ecological framework of take a chance factors for runaway beliefs and subsequent CSE would propose that multiple gamble factors are related to runaway beliefs, and that these factors are "nested" and operate at multiple levels, including individual (east.k., sociodemographic factors, kid abuse, substance abuse), familial (e.g., family instability), and extra-familial levels (east.m., school factors, peer networks) (Aratani and Cooper 2015; DuPont et al. 2013; Reid and Piquero 2014; Roe-Sepowitz 2012; Weber et al. 2004). Identifying the constellation of precursory risk factors to delinquent behavior amidst commercially sexually exploited individuals can be used to inform targeted intervention and prevention strategies aimed at serving this high-take chances population.

Adventure Factors Associated with Runaway Behavior and CSE

Existing research on delinquent behavior and CSE suggests an at-risk profile comprised of multiple factors at individual, familial, and extra-familial levels that announced to increase youths' risk for CSE. Prior research has largely focused on private-level factors linked to runaway behavior. Research on individual-level factors associated with runaway behavior has constitute that exposure to babyhood corruption, economic stressors, homelessness, and alcohol and drug corruption act equally precursory factors to running away from dwelling house in samples of youth engaged in the commercial sexual activity industry (Greene et al. 1995; Rice et al. 2013; Tyler et al. 2007). Additionally, sociodemographic factors related to youths' identity (i.due east. race/ethnicity, gender identity, and sexual orientation) take been linked to runaway behavior, including amidst samples of youth exposed to CSE. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ) youth have unduly college rates of runaway behavior (Ray 2006) and are also less probable to stay in a shelter and more probable to stay with a stranger than heterosexual and cisgender male and female person youth, which increases their risk for exposure to violence and exploitation while away from abode (Rice et al. 2013). Few studies take examined familial-level factors that are linked to runaway beliefs in samples of individuals with CSE histories. Family conflict has been identified as a primary predictor of runaway behavior amongst youth in the general population. Specifically, 47% of youth who run away cite conflict with i or both parents as the near salient reason they left dwelling house (Westat 1997) and 50% of runaway youth report their parents knew they were leaving habitation or asked them to leave (Greene et al. 1995).

Although family unit disharmonize may prompt youth to run away and subsequently feel CSE, some inquiry suggests other familial-level factors, such as parental or family involvement in the commercial sex industry, may lead to CSE amongst youth (Raphael et al. 2010; Williamson and Prior 2009). However, prior studies have not nevertheless fully explored how familial interest in the commercial sexual activity industry is linked to delinquent behavior, which is important to understand the potential pathways between familial risk factors, runaway behavior, and subsequent CSE.

Research on extra-familial factors related to youths' risk for runaway beliefs have primarily examined the office of peer factors among delinquent youth. Peer influences have been broadly linked to malversation behaviors (Warr 2005) and some research suggests that having peers engaged in the commercial sex industry (e.thousand., trading sexual practice for various things of value, engaging in survival sex activity to meet basic needs), tin influence youths' behaviors to appoint in similar commercial sexual activity acts (Ennett et al. 1999; Tyler et al. 2004). Peer deviance in particular has been identified as a strong predictor of runaway beliefs in national samples, contained of a youth'due south own deviant behavior and other individual-level characteristics too as familial factors (Chen et al. 2012). Although peer deviance may influence delinquent beliefs, prior research has largely focused just on peer friendships, rather than other types of peer relationships (i.due east. romantic and sexual) which may influence runaway beliefs and subsequent CSE among youth.

Electric current Study

Prior research has not collectively assessed multiple risk factors for runaway behavior at individual, familial, and extra-familial levels among individuals exposed to CSE, which is needed to improve knowledge on the means in which risk factors operate and interact with one another at multiple levels. The following study aims to accost this gap through applying an ecological framework of risk factors to sympathise risk associated with delinquent beliefs among commercially sexually exploited youth. This retrospective study 1) uses multivariate statistics to examine individual, familial, and actress-familial take a chance factors for runaway behavior amidst individuals engaged in commercial sexual exploitation and ii) tests mediating chance factors to improve empathise the process by which multiple risk factors influence runaway behavior amidst those who have been involved in commercial sexual exploitation.

Methodology

Study Pattern and Procedures

University Institutional Review Board (IRB) approving was obtained for this study. In order to protect report participants and to maintain their anonymity, a waiver of documentation of consent was granted past the IRB. A cantankerous-sectional, retrospective survey was administered in 5 urban areas within one Midwestern state. A 76-item survey instrument was developed and piloted during the formative enquiry stage, which included individual and focus group interviews among community-based organizations, local and state officials, researchers, and individuals engaged in the commercial sex industry.

Information collectors were trained in survey administration and were accompanied by a trained advocate at each collection site to assist study participants who requested referrals for social services, immediate help, or who were under the age of 16 and needed to be reported to child welfare for assessment and/or protection. Surveys were administered in local public libraries in private report rooms. Information collectors presented participants with the choice to complete the survey online (via Survey Gizmo) or on paper. English-speaking participants over the age of sixteen and who engaged in commercial sex activity acts in the past six months were eligible for participation in the study. Information were collected over a half-dozen-months period (January 2011 to June 2011).

Survey participants were recruited using Respondent Driven Sampling (RDS) (Heckathorn 1997, 2002). RDS has been used in prior studies to recruit youth and adults engaged in the commercial sexual practice industry (Curtis et al. 2008). RDS is especially useful when researchers need to capture a community that is subconscious, is violating the law, or is otherwise hard to access. In the current written report, data collectors first identified the "seeds" or individuals known to be involved in the commercial sex activity industry. These "seeds" were surveyed by information collectors, compensated $10, and then provided 5 coupons to give to others they knew involved in the commercial sex industry. Each person who took the survey received $x and those who referred them received some other $10. In order to runway coupons and identify various social networks, coupons were numbered (to prevent duplication) with the initial seed'due south name on them. Each coupon could be redeemed for $10 at a nearby location inside the designated city on specific days and at specific times identified on the coupon. Coupons were likewise color coded to track the city in which they were obtained and redeemed. Sample recruitment ended in one case the sample reached stable composition and possessed the characteristics of the intended population of study (Heckathorn 1997).

Sample Description

A total of 328 participants currently engaged in the commercial sex manufacture were recruited to the written report to examine delinquent histories and associated individual, familial, and actress-familial run a risk factors for runaway beliefs. Among these, 42 participants were identified every bit adult sex trafficking victims (defined as currently beingness 18 years of age and older and having reported currently being forced or manipulated to participate in commercial sex acts) and were excluded from the sample for the purposes of the current study. A full of 13 participants had missing data on delinquent history variables, resulting in a terminal sample size of 273.

The majority of participants in the sample were female (72.v%) and Black or African American (59.7%), with a hateful current age of 36.74 (SD = eleven.47). A total of 36.half-dozen% of participants identified as a sexual minority (lesbian/gay/bisexual). About 29% of participants reported runaway behavior prior to entering the commercial sex industry. The largest grouping (37%) of participants engaged in their start commercial sexual practice human action between the ages of 14 and 17, followed by 28.nine% between the ages of xviii and twenty, 28.9% age 21 and older, and v.ane% under the historic period of 12. The bulk of participants with runaway behavior histories entered the commercial sex industry nether the age of 18 (62.8%) (see Tables 1, 2, and three).

Table 1

Sample demographics and bivariate statistics for runaways and non-runaways

Variable	Full (North = 273) % (N)	Runaway (n = 78) % (n)	Non-Runaways (n = 190) % (n)	χ ² _(df)
Median current age (SD)	36 (11.47)	35 (10.75)	37.8 (11.67)
Age of start commercial sexual practice act
Younger than 12	3.vii (10)	ii.6 (2)	4.ii (8)
12–17	31.ix (87)	56.4 (44)	21.1 (forty)
18–20	twenty.v (56)	nineteen.2 (xv)	21 (forty)
21 and older	19 (52)	9.i (7)	23.2 (46)
Gender				3.56_(one)
Male person	26 (71)	eighteen.ii (fourteen)	29.iv (55)
Female	72.5 (198)	81.8 (63)	lxx.6 (132)
Transgender	0.seven (2)	0 (0)	1.2 (2)
Race				4.86₍₁₎*
White	32.6 (89)	42.3 (33)	28.4 (54)
Non-White	184 (67.4)	57.7 (45)	71.6 (136)
Sexual orientation				.08₍₁₎
Heterosexual	61.5 (168)	63.vi (49)	61.eight (115)
LGB	36.6 (100)	36.four (28)	38.2 (71)
Frequent AoD use	48.7 (133)	67.6 (50)	44.6 (83)	eleven.fifteen_(i) ***
Homeless	36.3 (99)	46.7 (35)	33.ii (63)	4.21₍₁₎*
Worried well-nigh eating/sleeping	forty.3 (110)	51.4 (38)	37.2 (70)	4.37₍₁₎*
Raped	38.v (105)	47.4 (36)	35.one (66)	3.43₍₁₎
CPS involvement	20.9 (57)	21.8 (17)	xx.five (39)	.05₍₁₎
Childhood concrete abuse	28.6 (78)	39 (xxx)	24.3 (46)	5.73₍₁₎*
Childhood sexual abuse	34.1 (93)	37.7 (29)	33.seven (63)	.38₍₁₎
Babyhood emotional abuse	32.half-dozen (89)	45.5 (35)	28 (52)	7.53₍₁₎**
Family members involved in sex work	27.8 (76)	xxx.seven (23)	27.9 (53)	.twenty₍₁₎
Dropped out of schoolhouse	38.1 (104)	59 (46)	30.seven (58)	18.68₍₁₎***
Friends who bought sex	31.i (85)	forty.v (30)	28.4 (54)	3.61_(one)
Friends who sold sex	40.seven (111)	52.1 (38)	38.5 (72)	iii.95_(i)*
Older boyfriend/girlfriend	43.half dozen (119)	66.2 (49)	37.5 (69)	17.54₍₁₎***

Table 2

Hierarchical logistic regression predicting odds of runaway behavior (N = 240)

	Step 1		Step two		Step iii		Step 4
	OR	95% CI	OR	95% CI	OR	95% CI	OR	95% CI
Footstep 1: Covariates
Gender (female)	ane.64	.83, 3.22	ane.64	.81, 3.32	ane.63	.lxxx, 3.29	i.54	.75, 3.19
Race (non-white)	ane.77	.97, iii.23	ane.68	.ninety, 3.12	ane.64	.88, three.06	1.63	.85, 3.12
Sexual orientation	.97	.53, one.75	.99	.53, one.82	.99	.53, 1.83	one.06	.57, 2.03
Stride 2: Individual Factors
Insufficient basic needs			one.80	.94, 3.47	2.00*	one.12, 3.94	1.54	.73, iii.25
Interpersonal trauma			1.21	.62, 2.37	1.17	.59, 2.29	1.42	.69, 2.91
Frequent AoD employ			two.07*	1.08, 3.98	two.23*	1.15, 4.33	ane.l	.72, iii.12
Footstep 3: Familial Factors
Family involved in sex work					i.53	.76, 3.05	two.01	.93, iv.29
Step iv: Actress-familial Factors
Peers involved in sexual activity piece of work							1.34	.62, two.89
Dropping out of school							1.85	.88, 3.93
Having older swain/girlfriend							two.81*	1.19, half-dozen.54
Model Evaluation	χ ²		χ ²		χ ²		χ ²
Likelihood Ratio Test	280.19		268.89		267.42		255.49
Pseudo-R ²(Nagelkerke)	.04		.x		.11		.17

Table iii

Results of mediation effect of older boyfriend/girlfriend (model 1) and bereft bones needs (model 2) between frequent AoD use and running abroad

	Path	Predictor	Dependent variable	OR	95% CI
Model 1
Step ane	c	Frequent AoD use	Running away	2.59**	i.47, 4.55
Pace 2	a	Frequent AoD use	Older boyfriend/girlfriend	10.04***	five.63, 17.88
Step 3	b	Older boyfriend/girlfriend	Running abroad	3.27***	1.85, 5.76
Stride 4	c'	Frequent AoD utilize	Running away	1.6	.82, three.10
Model ii
Step ane	c	Frequent AoD utilize	Running away	2.59**	ane.47, 4.55
Stride 2	a	Frequent AoD apply	Insufficient basic needs	3.82***	2.28, half dozen.40
Step 3	b	Insufficient basic needs	Running away	2.02*	ane.16, 3.51
Step 4	c'	Frequent AoD use	Running away	i.99*	1.09, 3.63

AoD = alcohol and/or drug. N ranges from 255 to 267 in each model due to missing data on consequence variables. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001

Measures

Dependent Variable

Runaway behavior was assessed through two unmarried dichotomous indicators (aye/no) request respondents to indicate whether the post-obit statements were true before they entered the commercial sexual practice trade: I ran away from home less than i twelvemonth earlier and/or I ran away from home more than ane year earlier, which were combined to betoken any runaway behavior before entering the commercial sex industry (no = 0; 1 yes = ane).

Independent Variables

All risk factors were measured using single dichotomous indicators (yep/no) asking respondents to bespeak whether they experienced the following less than 1 year before inbound the commercial sex activity industry and/or more than i twelvemonth before inbound the sexual activity trade, all of which were collapsed to indicate the presence of each (at any time point) prior to entering the commercial sex industry. Some variables were farther combined and conceptually grouped for the purposes of the multivariate assay, every bit detailed below.

Individual-level factors included the demographics of self-identified gender (male, female, or transgender), race/ethnicity (Black or African American, White, Hispanic, or Other) and sexual orientation (heterosexual, lesbian, gay, or bisexual) and were included equally covariates in the assay based on prior research on youth involvement in the commercial sex manufacture (Clarke et al. 2012; Fedina et al. 2016; Kramer and Berg 2003; Tyler et al. 2004). Gender was recoded to indicate male (0) or female (1) (reference group = male), equally two participants identified as transgender, just were not included in the multivariate analysis due to the small sample size of this group. Race/ethnicity was recoded to indicate White (0) non-White (1) (reference grouping = White), every bit most the sample identified as Black or African American (59.7%) and White (32.6%). Sexual orientation was recoded into a dichotomous variable (heterosexual = 0; lesbian, gay, or bisexual [LGB] = i) (reference group = heterosexual).

Additional individual-level factors included frequent alcohol and/or drug use, having insufficient basic needs, and interpersonal trauma. Frequent alcohol and/or drug utilise was measured using five items indicating whether the following substances were used frequently prior to entry: alcohol, marijuana, prescription drugs, cleft cocaine, or other illegal drugs. Items were complanate to indicate any frequent alcohol and/or drug use (0 = no frequent yes; i = frequent employ) (Cronbach'south alpha = .88). Insufficient basic needs were assessed with two indicators measuring homelessness (I was homeless) and/or being worried virtually where to eat or sleep (I worried about how I would eat or where I would slumber), which were complanate into one dichotomous variable (0 = endorsement of neither detail; 1 = endorsement of either or both items) for the multivariate analysis although examined as separate indicators in the bivariate assay (Cronbach's blastoff = .66),. Interpersonal trauma consisted of five items with positive endorsements to rape (I was raped), childhood physical, sexual, and emotional abuse (I was a victim of babyhood physical abuse; I was a victim of childhood sexual abuse, I was a victim of babyhood emotional corruption), and/or involvement in Kid Protection Services (I was involved with Kid Protection Services equally an driveling/neglected kid), which were combined into a single dichotomous variable (0 = not maltreated; 1 = maltreated) (Cronbach's alpha = .83),

Familial-level factors included a single item assessing whether the participant had family members involved in the commercial sex activity manufacture: I had shut family members involved in sex work (0 = no; 1 = yes).

Actress-familial factors included dropping out of school, peer involvement in the commercial sex industry, and having a much older boyfriend/girlfriend. Dropping out of schoolhouse was measured with 1 item request participants whether the post-obit were true prior to entry: I dropped out of school (no = 0; one = aye). 2 items (i.e. I had friends who bought sex and/or I had friends who sold sexual activity) were combined to assess peer involvement in the commercial sexual activity industry (no = 0; 1 = yep) (Cronbach's alpha = .72). Finally, having a much older young man/girlfriend was measured with one item: I had an older young man or girlfriend (0 = no; 1 = yes).

Data Analyses

Statistical analyses were conducted in three steps. Offset, chi-square tests were used to examine bivariate relationships between private gamble factors and runaway behavior. Second, hierarchical logistic regression was conducted to examine the relationship between conceptually grouped chance factors and runaway behavior, using the ecological gamble factor framework. Third, ii variables were tested as potential mediators between significant independent variables and runaway beliefs in the hierarchical logistic regression model. The multivariate analyses were conducted with a sample of 240 out of 273 cases (87.nine%), due to missing data. Listwise deletion (Saunders et al. 2006) was employed. All analyses were assessed at an alpha criterion of .05 and analyzed in SPSS Version 24.

Two separate mediation models were tested, with both having an older beau/girlfriend and having insufficient basic needs examined every bit potential mediators of the human relationship between frequent alcohol and/or drug use and runaway behavior (encounter Fig.1). Baron and Kenny's (1986) four steps to testing arbitration were used for the initial assessment: one) regression with X (frequent alcohol and/or drug utilize) predicting Y (runaway beliefs); 2) regression with Ten (frequent booze and/or drug utilise) predicting M (older boyfriend/girlfriend or insufficient basic needs); 3) regression with M (older young man/girlfriend or insufficient basic needs) predicting Y (delinquent behavior); and four) regression with X (frequent alcohol and/or drug use) and M (older boyfriend/girlfriend or bereft basic needs) predicting Y (runaway behavior). The Sobel test (1987) was then used every bit the final criterion to determine the significance of the mediation result of a) older swain/girlfriend and b) insufficient basic needs between frequent alcohol and/or drug utilise and runaway beliefs.

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Model of result of frequent alcohol and/or drug apply on runaway beliefs as mediated by having an older fellow/girlfriend (a) and insufficient basic needs (b). a = IV to M, b = straight effect of M on DV while controlling for 10, c = full effect of IV on DV, c' = direct effect of IV on DV, when controlling for M

Results

Results from chi-square tests yielded statistically significant associations between running away prior to entering the commercial sex manufacture and childhood emotional corruption (χⁱⁱ = 7.53; p < .01); childhood physical corruption (χ^two = v.73; p < .05); having friends who sold sex (χ^two = 3.95; p < .05); having an older beau/girlfriend (χⁱⁱ = 17.54; p < .001); dropping out of school (χ² = 18.58; p < .001); beingness worried about where to eat/slumber (χ² = iv.37; p < .05); homelessness (χ² = four.21; p < .05); and frequent alcohol and/or drug use (χ² = 11.15; p < .01) prior to entering the commercial sex activity industry. Race/ethnicity was significantly associated with delinquent behavior (χ² = 4.86; p < .05); however, gender and sexual orientation were not. Childhood sexual abuse, having friends who bought sex, interest with CPS, and having family members involved in the commercial sexual activity industry were non significantly associated with runaway behavior at the bivariate level (see Tabular array 1).

Assumptions for logistic regression were assessed and met (e.one thousand., independent observations, multicollinearity, contained variables are linearly related to the log odds). Individual, familial, and extra-familial chance factors were then entered in a hierarchical logistic regression model across iv steps. Demographic covariates of race, gender, and sexual orientation were entered in Step 1. No demographic variables were pregnant in the model in Footstep one. Boosted private-level factors were entered in Stride 2, including insufficient basic needs, interpersonal trauma, and frequent booze and/or drug use. Frequent booze and/or drug use was significant in the model in Step 2, later on controlling for all other variables. Those who frequently used alcohol and/or drugs prior to commercial sex industry entry had significantly higher odds (OR = 2.07, 95% CI = 1.08, 3.98, p = .03) of runaway behavior than those who did not oft use booze and/or drugs prior to entry. The familial-level cistron of family involvement in commercial sexual activity piece of work was added in Step 3. Frequent drug and/or alcohol utilize remained significant (OR = ii.23, 95% CI = 1.fourteen, 4.33, p = .01) and insufficient basic needs became significant (OR = two.00, 95% CI = 1.02, iii.94, p < .04), subsequently controlling for familial and other private factors, only family unit interest was non meaning in footstep 3. Extra-familial factors were entered in Stride iv (dropped out of schoolhouse, peer involvement in commercial sex work, older boyfriend/girlfriend). Frequent booze and/or drug use and insufficient bones needs were no longer significant in Step 4; however, having an older young man/girlfriend was associated with a nearly iii-fold increase in the odds of runaway beliefs (OR = ii.81, 95% CI = 1.19, 6.64, p = .02) (see Table 2).

Figure 1a depicts the relationships necessary for mediation to occur (Businesswoman and Kenny 1986). In the commencement mediation model (Fig. onea), a significant relationship betwixt the predictor and the outcome was established in Step ane (path c). Specifically, frequent alcohol and/or drug use was a significant predictor of runaway behavior (OR = 2.56, p = .001). In footstep 2, a significant relationship between the predictor and the mediator was plant (path a). Frequent alcohol and/or drug use was a significant predictor of having an older young man/girlfriend (OR = 10.04, p < .001). In step three, a significant relationship betwixt the mediator and the result variable was established (path b). Having an older young man/girlfriend was a significant predictor of runaway behavior (OR = 3.27, p < .001). Finally, in footstep 4, the strength of the relationship betwixt the predictor and the outcome was reduced when the mediator was added to the model (path c'). Frequent alcohol and/or drug use was no longer significantly predictive of runaway beliefs, later on accounting for having an older swain/girlfriend (OR = 2.64, p = .004), supporting full mediation. The Sobel test confirmed the significant mediation consequence (Z = two.71 p = .006).

In the second mediation model (Fig. oneb), a significant relationship between the predictor and the outcome was established in Step 1 (path c). Frequent booze and/or drug apply was a meaning predictor of delinquent behavior (OR = 2.56, p = .001). In step 2, a meaning relationship between the predictor and the mediator was found (path a). Frequent booze and/or drug utilise was a significant predictor of having bereft basic needs (OR = iii.82, p < .001). In stride 3, a significant human relationship between the mediator and the outcome variable was plant (path b); that is, having insufficient basic needs was a significant predictor of runaway beliefs (OR = 2.02, p = .013). In step four, the strength of the human relationship betwixt the predictor and the upshot was found to be reduced when the mediator was added (path c'); still, frequent booze and/or drug use remained significantly predictive of runaway behavior (OR = 1.87, p = .041), after accounting for insufficient basic needs (OR = ane.99, p = .025), suggesting possible partial arbitration. These results were further assessed using the Sobel test, which indicated that insufficient basic needs did not significantly mediate the human relationship effect between frequent alcohol and/or drug use and delinquent behavior (Z = ane.89, p = .058) (see Tables ii and iii).

Word

This study used an ecological framework of risk factors to understand the procedure past which individual, familial, and extra-familial take chances factors are linked to runaway behavior among a sample of individuals engaged in commercial sexual exploitation. Findings from this study suggest that a range of risk factors are linked to delinquent behavior amidst commercial sexually exploited individuals, notwithstanding, results advise several prominent factors that may act as the strongest predictors for runaway beliefs among this population. Findings also highlight particularly salient chance factors at each level of the ecological framework and provides a more comprehensive profile of run a risk for runaway beliefs among CSE youth.

Individual-level factors including alcohol and substance corruption, poverty and economic insecurity, and childhood abuse accept been consistently linked to delinquent beliefs among youth in prior research (Fountain et al. 2003; Hagan & McCarthy 1997; McNaughton 2008; Thompson & Pillai 2006; Tyler et al. 2011). This finding is somewhat supported in the current report, equally significantly college rates of frequent alcohol and/or drug use, having bereft bones needs, and varying forms of child corruption (east.m., physical, emotional) were documented among participants with runaway beliefs histories compared to participants without runaway behavior histories at the bivariate level. In the multivariate analyses, significant individual-level factors included frequent booze and/or drug utilize and having insufficient basic needs, which were found to increase odds of runaway behavior in early steps of the assay; however, these predictors were no longer pregnant subsequently accounting for actress-familial factors.

In particular, having an older girlfriend/boyfriend was the strongest predictor of runaway behavior, after controlling for other factors at individual, familial, and extrafamilial levels. Prior research has found that extrafamilial peer friendships (peer delinquency) is strongly correlated with delinquent behavior amongst youth in the general population (Chen et al. 2012; Warr 2005). Although we examined other extra-familial factors related to participants' peer friendships (i.e. peers engaged in ownership or selling/trading sex), these factors were non significant in the multivariate model after accounting for other romantic/sexual relationships and individual and familial-level factors. Peer delinquency may be related to delinquent beliefs in general among youth, nevertheless, our findings suggest that older dating partners may exist uniquely associated with runaway behavior and subsequent CSE, afterward accounting for adventure factors at multiple levels.

We also examined mediation effects to better understand the mechanisms through which chance factors for runaway behavior and subsequent CSE operate and collaborate with ane some other at individual, familial, and actress-familial levels. Our results suggest that extrafamilial factors may supercede risk for runaway behavior and subsequent CSE institute at private-levels. Specifically, we found that having an older boyfriend/girlfriend fully mediated the human relationship between frequent alcohol and/or drug use and runaway behavior. This finding lends support for the utility of an ecological framework of take a chance factors to predict delinquent behavior and subsequent CSE and suggests the need for futurity research to appraise run a risk factors beyond private and familial levels and to include extrafamilial factors.

Our findings suggest the need for professionals working with youth at chance for CSE to consider the role of dating partners in youth's adventure for runaway behavior. Scant research has examined the function of dating partners in predicting runaway behavior among youth generally; however, a growing body of literature suggests that third parties (east.g., pimps, recruiters, or others involved in commercial sex manufacture networks) often pose as dating or romantic partners to youth to effectively recruit or lure adolescents and young adults into the commercial sexual industry (Fedina et al. 2016; Williamson and Prior 2009). For example, Fedina et al. (2016) found that over l% of commercially sexually exploited youth had been dating a much older partner prior to entering the commercial sex industry. Qualitative research on CSE among female person youth suggests that older male pimps, also as older adult women engaged in commercial sex industry networks, employ physically, psychologically, and sexually abusive and coercive tactics to recruit and maintain youth in the commercial sex industry (Williamson et al., 2009). Practitioners working with at-risk and runaway youth should routinely screen for dating violence and be cognizant of youth who may exist dating or sexually agile with much older partners, which may increase risk for delinquent beliefs and subsequent CSE.

In add-on to examining mediation furnishings between levels of risk factors, we also explored mediating relationships within levels of risk. Prior literature documents strong links between private-level factors of poverty, economic insecurity, and runaway behavior (east.thousand., Tyler et al. 2011), however, the extent to which these factors interact with substance abuse has not been fully examined. Therefore, we tested whether having insufficient basic needs mediated the relationship betwixt frequent booze and/or drug use and runaway beliefs; however, no significant mediation effect was found. This suggests that substance abuse, poverty, and economical insecurity remain important individual-level risk factors when assessing youths' runaway behavior and subsequent gamble for CSE. Practitioners working with at-risk youth in community and school settings should assess socioeconomic needs (e.g., housing, nutrient and nutrition assist, clothing) and substance corruption behaviors to link youth and their families to appropriate community resources and services.

Limitations

Findings should be considered within the context of several limitations. All data are cross-sectional so causality between variables cannot be established. Although this study identifies a range of hazard factors that were precursory to entering the commercial sex industry, it is not clear which risk factors were nowadays first and/or which, if any, co-occurred with delinquent behavior. Future research is needed using longitudinal data to sympathise the sequential pathways to runaway behavior and subsequent commercial sexual exploitation. Generalizability may also be limited as data collection occurred in 1 Midwestern state and thus, findings may not employ to other states and cities in the United States.

There are as well several limitations to the study'south measures. This study used retrospective, cocky-report measures, which are susceptible to recollect bias. The survey instrument did non include standardized measures of kid corruption, delinquent behaviors, and alcohol and drug utilise and were instead developed by the research team and community collaborators during the formative enquiry phase. The researchers created a new instrument given the famine of retrospective measures that assess a broad set of precursory factors to commercial sexual exploitation and to mitigate the potential for recall bias in the written report which included populations exposed to trauma and substance abuse, which could interfere with recall of experiences prior to entering the commercial sex activity manufacture. Additionally, measures were largely dichotomous and incident-based, rather than behavior-based, which likely resulted in underestimations amidst participants who may non have acknowledged or perceived their experiences equally child corruption, runaway behavior, or frequent booze and drug use and may not fully represent the range of experiences among participants.

Additionally, there may be limitations to the study'southward modes of data drove, which included both online and newspaper surveys. Unfortunately, we were non able to command for the manner of information collection in analyses, which may have impacted written report outcomes. Additional modes of information collection, such as in-person field interviews, may have served as a more robust method of information collection for the purposes of this study; nevertheless, limited funding and resource prevented the states from using additional data collection methods. Despite these limitations, this study improves our understanding of salient risk factors for delinquent behaviors and subsequent commercial sexual exploitation among youth and highlights the need for targeted intervention strategies addressing healthy peer and romantic relationships amidst youth (e.chiliad., extra-familial factors).

Conclusions and Implications

Findings highlight the importance of using an ecological framework to identify, intervene, and prevent risk factors at individual, familial, and extra-familial levels that atomic number 82 to delinquent beliefs and subsequent commercial sexual exploitation. Professionals working with adolescents and youth should screen for individual-level risk factors including frequent booze and drug apply and economic insecurity (due east.g., housing, food, and other basic needs) and coordinate needed resources and services for children and families, which may forestall runaway behavior and subsequent commercial sexual exploitation. In addition to these individual-level risk factors, findings indicate that extra-familial factors and specifically, having older dating partners is an peculiarly strong predictor and mediator of runaway behavior. Professionals working with youth should appraise actress-familial relationships, including relationships where youth are romantically or sexually engaged with older partners every bit well equally older adults who may be addressing youths' varied needs for housing, nutrient, clothing and emotional attachment. Although interventions with youth at risk for runaway behavior and commercial sexual exploitation should include strategies that address healthy romantic and peer relationships, these preventive measures volition probable not be successful without policy interventions that identify and concur perpetrators answerable. It is likely that many of the romantic relationships between children and older adults engaged in the commercial sex activity industry constitute kid maltreatment and in certain contexts, the older partner can be considered a caregiver to the youth if they are addressing youths' bones needs, which has implications for investigation and response at public child welfare agencies.

Findings likewise suggest implications for future enquiry. Future studies are needed to place which risk factors precede each other, including those that co-occur, prior to runaway beliefs and subsequent commercial sexual exploitation to better sympathise pathways into the commercial sex industry. Additional research is also needed to better understand whether youth brainstorm dating older partners prior to running away, which then prompts youth to run away to their dating partners, or whether youth run away from habitation and then run across older dating partners who may recruit them into the commercial sex activity industry. Finally, research is needed on the dynamics and contexts of relationships betwixt youth and older dating partners engaged in the commercial sex industry in order to more accurately inform clinical and policy interventions that both support youths' disengagement from harmful relationships and hold perpetrators answerable.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the individuals who participated in this report and the data collectors and advocates on the enquiry team: Jessica Schart, Trisha Smouse, Renee Jones, Jessica Donohue-Dioh, Erin Michel, Maggie Billings, and Oliva Burns.

Funding

Funding for this report was provided past the Ohio Department of Public Prophylactic, Function of Criminal Justice Services through the Edward Byrne Memorial Justice Aid Grant Program, administered past the U.S. Section of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Disharmonize of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

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